They were founded by the residents of the different coastal municipalities and to this day consist largely of a voluntary workforce. In the s several dike associations were merged, leaving a total of 22 Main Dike Associations controlling and improving the dikes along the Lower Saxony coastline. Lower nature conservation authorities: These are subordinate to the respective districts and are responsible for natural areas along the coastline that are not part of the national parks.
Even just the example of Lower Saxony shows what a proliferation of responsibilities there can be in one German federal state. In Hamburg and Schleswig-Holstein, by comparison, there are differences of detail in the regulations and the official structures. For example, over the years it can be deemed a success that the German Wadden Sea as a whole has been designated as a protected national park in spite of the disparate responsibilities across federal state boundaries.
Beyond this, the responsibility for infrastructures of supraregional importance such as the federal waterways rests with a single body — the Federal Ministry of Transport and Digital Infrastructure. However, experts also emphasise that the division into different authorities can have advantages. They point out that within the different authorities there are large numbers of experts who possess important detailed and specialist knowledge, be it on coastal defences or nature conservation or regarding waterway safety.
Many demands — many conflicts Coasts have many functions and provide many ecosystem services — such as fish, navigable waterways, tourism and recreation, or space for agriculture and construction projects. This plurality can easily lead to conflicts if there is not sufficient coordination between the respective authorities or among the different stakeholder groups generally.
For example, human use often comes into conflict with nature conservation aspects. In China the desire for economic development led to substantial pollution of coastal areas. In order to catch up with the high economic standards of the West as fast as possible, often very little attention was paid to environmental aspects.
Today there is growing resistance to such a one-sided focus among the Chinese population, and it is being realized that goal conflicts have surfaced which can only be resolved by rising above the mere satisfaction of particular interests. Not just in China but in many other regions worldwide, such stringently sectoral approaches are preventing efficient protection of coastal habitats or sustainable use.
Here an effective coastal management scheme is only possible in international cooperation. The coordination of all these interests can normally only be achieved by means of an elaborate coastal management process.
According to the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations FAO , nowadays there are a series of causal factors that result in the exploitation or degradation of coastal habitats rather than their sustainable use.
Good management delivers benefits This conflict potential can be defused, the FAO notes, if all these aspects are taken into consideration as part of an integrated coastal zone management scheme, and ICZM programmes, once drafted, are actually implemented in full. Furthermore, a comprehensive ICZM programme today must address more than just the immediate shorelands and coastal waters but also the multifarious relationships between the coast and the hinterland — be it for the creation of sales markets for new, sustainably harvested products, or with regard to preventing land-based pollution of coastal waters.
Nevertheless, the ICZM idea has gained traction in many places. Depending on the number of use interests, an Integrated Coastal Zone Management process can vary in its complexity. If only individual or a handful of user groups are involved, the overall process is generally more streamlined. This may be the case in coastal regions of developing countries, for instance, where artisanal fishery is the main feature and few other types of use exist.
In the meantime, successful examples exist from which much can be learned. If optimization is found to be needed, the next cycle begins with the planning of new measures.
Optimization through quality control Regular monitoring of whether certain measures have resulted in a set objective is of crucial importance for a successful ICZM process. This also means that ICZM is not a one-off project but a cyclical process in which results are continually reviewed and assessed.
Thus it is also possible to adapt the ICZM process little by little to new conditions and optimize it. An ICZM cycle begins with an analysis of the situation and assessment of the problems. This is followed by the drafting of an action plan that takes account of all the issues.
Next, the action plan is formally approved by all parties involved. Once the measures defined in the action plan have been implemented, an evaluation takes place which assesses the measures to determine their impact.
If further problems or new difficulties arise, the action plan must be refined. This completes the cycle. Depending on the scale of an ICZM process, the duration of a cycle may vary. Best-practice examples show that one cycle of an ICZM project on a national scale, from situation analysis to evaluation, takes around eight to twelve years. If the process only encompasses a certain coastal region or a single coastal town, one cycle lasts around three to four years on average.
Bringing local people on board Depending on the situation in the given location, various stakeholder groups must be involved in the ICZM process. The following successful examples will make this clear.
Its objective is to protect coastal waters by making use of them sustainably and prudently — for example, if fishers switch from destructive dynamite fishery to gentler methods of catching fish. The local people resisted the prohibition on use, which undermined marine protection in the areas concerned from the very start. In the meantime many village communities in different countries now belong to the LMMA network, and have regular opportunities to engage with each other at regional, national and international workshops.
The supreme objective of the LMMA is marine protection. It differs from the idea of MPAs in that grassroots groups are given a voice during the planning phase and take charge of sustainable management in their locality themselves.
The ocean around the island of Vanua Levu, which belongs to Fiji, was declared a locally managed marine area LMMA in a comprehensive management process. Here the local fishers themselves ensure sustainable use of the fish and seafood. The coral reefs in the region suffer additional degradation from being trampled by tourists and damaged by anchors or by the removal of corals for sale as souvenirs.
It is important that the local population can retain its sovereignty through the LMMA process by participating in deciding, in consultation with other stakeholder groups, which fishery methods they should use in future. As a rule, some territory is also defined during the LMMA planning process where a complete prohibition on use applies, which guarantees that stocks of the marine organisms subject to use can recover.
Since the various village communities in coastal regions are now connected with each other via the network, best-practice solutions can easily be passed on. Beyond this, the hypothesis of a presupposition of strong sustainability as implicitly adopted in all environmental SDGs should be further researched.
An applicable and detailed concept of strong sustainability should be developed that holds for all natural capitals addressed in the Agenda and guides the implementation process ahead. For a discussion on the challenge of reconciling the dichotomy of economic and ethical values to develop an ethical basis for sustaining coastal and ocean systems, we refer to Auster et al.
For reasons of brevity, we leave it open how this approach might be reconciled with discounting future events see contributions in Hampicke and Ott This is the interpretation of Norton The ES approach should not be accused as being a Western neo-liberal economic approach which targets at the commodification of nature.
ES as such is silent on property rights and governance schemes. Unresolved issues and ideological clashes around marine protected areas. Aquat Conserv Mar Freshw Ecosyst 13 4 — Article Google Scholar. Island Press, Washington, pp — Google Scholar. Aquat Conserv Mar Freshw Ecosyst — Asheim GB Justifying, characterizing, and indicating sustainability. Springer, Dordrecht. Edward Elgar, Cheltenham. Conserv Biol 23 1 — Academic Press, Waltham, pp — Chapter Google Scholar. Soc Sci Med — Botkin DB Discordant harmonies: a new ecology for the twenty-first century.
Oxford University Press, New York. Ecosyst Serv 1 1 — Ecol Indic — Callicott JB Animal liberation: a triangular affair. Environ Ethics 2 4 — CBD b In: Strategic plan for biodiversity — Central Intelligence Agency The World Factbook — geography: world: geographic overview: coastline. A framework for constructive engagement.
BioScience 62 8 — Resilience-based natural resource management in a changing world. Springer, New York, pp 3— Int Environ Agreem 16 3 — Chichilnisky G What is sustainable development? Land Econ 73 4 — Contribution of Working Group I to the fifth assessment report of the intergovernmental panel on climate change, vol Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
Nature — Clements FE Plant succession; an analysis of the development of vegetation. Carnegie Institution of Washington, Washington. Book Google Scholar. Canberra: Australian Government Publishing Service. Accessed 25 Aug Costanza R The ecological, economic, and social importance of the oceans. Ecol Econ 31 2 — Trends Ecol Evol 30 9 — Global change—the IGBP series. Springer, Berlin, pp 1— Island Press, Washington, DC. Daly HE Beyond growth: the economics of sustainable development.
Beacon Press, Boston. Mar Policy — Academic Press, Waltham, pp 15— Nato science series. Springer, Dordrecht, pp — Aquat Conserv Mar Freshw Ecosyst 25 4 — Division for Sustainable Development Global sustainable development report. Advance unedited version, New York. Mar Policy 35 2 — Estuaries Coasts 31 2 — Dudley N Guidelines for applying protected area management categories. IUCN, Gland. Duxbury J, Dickinson S Principles for sustainable governance of the coastal zone: in the context of coastal disasters.
Ecol Econ 63 2—3 — Ehlers P Blue growth and ocean governance—how to balance the use and the protection of the seas. Ecol Econ 44 2—3 — European Commission Blue growth: opportunities for marine and maritime sustainable growth. Publications Office of the European Union, Luxemburg.
EEA report, vol Accessed 25 June Curr Opin Environ Sustain — Golley FB A history of the ecosystem concept in ecology. Yale University Press, New Haven. Green R Coastal towns in transition: local perceptions of landscape change. International Council for Science, Paris.
Grimm V, Wissel C Babel, or the ecological stability discussions: an inventory and analysis of terminology and a guide for avoiding confusion. Oecologia 3 — Gurran N, Blakely E Suffer a sea change?
Contrasting perspectives towards urban policy and migration in coastal Australia. Aust Geogr 38 1 — Sustainability 7 2 — PLoS One 10 3 :e Westdeutscher Verlag, Opladen. Heal G Valuing the future: economic theory and sustainability. Columbia University Press, New York.
Hilborn R Marine biodiversity needs more than protection. Hodgson B Economics as moral science. Springer, Berlin. Australian Government Publishing Service, Canberra. The Conversation, 12 April Hutchings P, Kenchington R Constraints of terrestrial protected area solutions in protecting marine biodiversity.
Australian Zoologist. Ecol Econ — Environ Behav 40 4 — Kenchington R Tourism in coastal and marine environments—a recreational perspective.
Ocean Coast Manag 19 1 :1— Kenchington R The evolution of marine conservation and marine protected areas in Australia.
J Coast Conserv 15 2 — Mar Policy 34 3 — Routledge, London. Le Blanc D, Freire C, Vierros M Mapping the linkages between oceans and other sustainable development goals: a preliminary exploration, vol Leopold A A sand county almanac, vol reprint PeerJ 3 e :e Accessed 08 July Glob Planet Change — Millennium Ecosystem Assessment Ecosystems and human well-being: a framework for assessment.
Island Press, Washington. Harri Deutsch Verlag, Frankfurt. Neumayer E Weak versus strong sustainability: exploring the limits of two opposing paradigms. For those who are affected new homes need to be located now, for they will become climate refugees. Improving coastal protection. Worldwide there are examples which give cause for hope. One challenge that remains is that of creating homelands in new places for the coastal dwellers that lose their homes because of climate change.
Who We Are News. Protecting India's Coastline October 11, Email Print. Tweet Share Share LinkedIn. Stumble Upon. Yet, despite their ecological richness and contribution to the national economy, these resources have not received adequate protection, and are under stress. The World Bank-financed Integrated Coastal Zone Management Project — part of the national coastal zone management program — seeks to balance development with the protection of vulnerable ecosystems.
The project To reverse this trend, India began implementing a number of measures in At national and state levels The project is working at the national level and in three states: Gujarat , Odisha , and West Bengal.
Bangladesh South Asia India.
0コメント